Welcome to the wonderful world of Biology !!!
Our textbook is entitled Prentice Hall Biology. Your student should have already received a copy to keep at home and I have a 'class set' for use in the classroom.
Schedule of study will be posted; however, make sure you check back often, as unexpected occurrences may necessitate changes.
This webpage is intended to HELP the absent student stay on track. It is in no way all-inclusive or a substitution for what occurs in the classroom.
I am available 8:00 - 8:30am Monday -Friday for tutoring (unless an unforseen emergency arises).
Fall Semester Spring Semester
Nature of Science / Safety Genetics
Chemistry / Biomolecules Biological Change
Cellular Basis of Life Populations / Evolution
Energy in Living Systems Living Systems
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1st 6 weeks F2009
August 24-28
M - Introduction
Mandatory signature forms due back August 25. These forms are required for participation in lab activities.
Save Fred due 8/25
T - Lab Safety
Read Ch. 1 & 2
Chapter 1 vocab due 8/26
W - Notes: characteristics of life (see below)
vocab review due 8/27
Th- Notes: NFPA (see below)
Safety sign due 8/29
F - Supplies due
Organize spiral
Chapter 1 p. 31 # 1-10 due 9/2
MUST COPY QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWER OR NO CREDIT
Chapter 1 Notes
What is Biology ?
·the study of life ( Bio = life) ( logy = study )
·the interactions of life - living things do not exist in isolation ( they depend on other living or non-living things )
Why study Biology ?
·appreciation of diversity
·understand how we fit into the pattern of life on Earth
So - - - What is life ?
Living things
1. Show orderly structure and are made up of cells.
Can be multicellular or unicellular
2. Reproduce
Required for continuation of a species
(species = organisms that breed and producefertile offspring )
3. Grow and develop
4. Obtain and use materials and energy(metabolism)
5. Respond to stimuli Adjust to changes in environment
6. Maintain internal balance Homeostasis
7. Adaptation / Evolution Survival to have offspring
Living things are studied on different levels:
Biosphere - all Ecosystems on Earth
Ecosystem - Communities and surroundings
Community - Population in an area
Population - One type of organism in one area
Organism - Individual living thing
Groups of Cells - Tissues, Organs, Organ systems
Cells - Smallest unit of life
Molecules - Groups of atoms ( smallest
unit of compounds that make up life)
NFPA Label
·This label is for emergency response and fire fighters.
·Hazard rating is from 0 (no hazard) to 4 (extreme).
Flammability ( flash points )(Red) Health (Blue)
0 = Will not burn 0 = Normal Material
1 = above 200 degrees F 1 = Slight Hazard
2 = Between 100-200 degrees F 2 = Moderately Hazardous
3 = Below 100 degrees F 3 = Extremely Hazardous
4 = Below 73 degrees F 4 = Deadly
Specific Hazard (White) Reactivity (Yellow)
ACID = acid 0 = Stable
ALK = alkali 1 = Unstable if heated
COR = corrosive 2 = Violent chemical change
OX = oxidizer 3 = Shock or heat may
detonate
P = polymerization 4 = Rapidly capable of
detonation
W with a line through it = Use no water
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OUR FIRST TEST WILL COVER CHAPTERS 1 & 2. IT IS SCHEDULED FOR SEPTEMBER 8
Aug 31 - Sept. 4
M Ch. 1 # 1-10 due REMEMBER - You must copy the questions and the answer for any credit.
Notes: Nature of Science
T ExD, Scientific Method
Current event due 9/24
Problem solving activity
W MSDS with questions
H. W. Scientific method practice with SpongeBob due 9/5
Th Sci meth. due
Lab: Identifying Lab Equipment
Review Sheet due 9/4
TEST - Unit 1 - 9/8
F Review sheet due
TEST - 9/8
The Nature of Science
Science is a way of Knowing
Science is a way of Thinking
Science is a way of Investigating
Scientific Method
Observation – should be detailed and accurate
Purpose – what do you want to know?
Hypothesis – guess or prediction based on observation and prior knowledge
Procedure – detailed steps/instructions
Control – the standard against which measurements are taken
Variables
Independent – what you are changing
Dependent – what is being measured
Results – data – the information collected
data analysis – interpretation of data (graphs, tables)
Conclusions – report of your findings
accept or revise your hypothesis
Sept 7-11
M Student/Staff Holiday
T review sheet due
Review for test
W Test - Nature of Science
Chapter 2 vocab due 9/10
Th Chapter 2 vocab due
Notes: Chemistry of Life
X-word due 9/11
F X - word due
Station Lab pH, water properties
Your next test over Chapter 2 is scheduled for Sept 22
It is never too early to read through your notes and begin studying.
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Sept 14-18
M Notes: Properties of water
Color water handout
T Notes - Biomolecules and question due 9/15
Spiral quiz 9/17
W Lab: Food & Nutrition
Th Spiral Quiz
Chapter 2 # 1-10 (remember: MUST COPY QUESTIONS AND
ANSWER FOR CREDIT)due 9/18
F Ch. 2 due
Review sheet for test due 9/21
Test 9/22 Unit 2 - Chemistry
Review Sheet Chapter 2 and Biomolecules
Match the following terms:
1. atomic number A. smallest part of an element
2. ionic bond B. positively charged particle found in nucleus
3. covalent bond C. two or more elements bonded together (ex. H20)
4. cation D. equal to number of protons in nucleus
5. proton E. two or more different atoms bonded together
6. anion
7. compound gain or loss of electrons
8. atom G. negatively charged ion
9. molecule H. sharing of electrons
10. Which part of an atom is involved in bonding?
11. What are the most common elements in living systems?
12.The water molecule is made up of _____ H atoms and ____ O atoms.
13.The water molecule is held together by a ______________ bond.
14.The bond described in the previous question occurs when
atoms share ________.
15.Draw and label a water molecule ( include the names
and charges for each element)
16.Draw how 3 water molecules would bond to each other.
17.Briefly define/describe the following water properties.
a. Polar
b. universal solvent
c. cohesion
d. adhesion
e. high specific heat
f. density
g. transparency
18. Name the water property described in each of the following by matching the letters from the question above.
a. water in the lake feels warm on a cool November day
b. sugar disappears in tea
c. water molecules stick together
d. water moves up the roots in a plant
e. plants can photosynthesize in water
f. most substances dissolve in water
g. chemical reactions occur in living systems
h. ice floats
19. An acid is a substance which releases _____ ions when mixed with water.
Acids have a pH range from _______ to _______. The strongest acids would
be near a pH of ______ and the weakest near a pH of _______. Acids typically have a _______ taste.
20.The pH scale is based on powers of ______. This means that an acid with a pH of 2 would be ____________ times stronger than an acid with a pH of 6.
21.Litmus paper turns the color ______ in an acid
and the color _______ in a base.
______________ paper measures the pH more accurately
using a color comparison.
22.A base is a substance that releases ______ ions when mixed
with water. Bases have a ______________ taste and a ___________ feel.
The pH range for bases is from _______ to ________. The strongest bases are found near the pH _________ and weaker bases are found near ________.
23.Body fluids ( like blood ) have a pH near _______. If the pH of the fluid changes by more than _____ in either direction, cells may die.
24.To neutralize a base, you need to add a(n) ________.
To neutralize an acid, you should add a(n) __________.
Use the following choices to describe the structure and function of biomolecules.
A. protein B. lipids C. carbohydrates D. nucleic acids
25.codes for genetic information 36. can function as enzymes
26.insulates the body 37. two types – DNA , RNA
27.can regulate functions of the body 38. hereditary information &
( ex. Growth, reproduction)protein synthesis
28.structural part of plants
40. fats (solid at room temp)
29.three fatty acids + glycerol oils (liquid at room
30.made of nucleotidestemp) are examples
31.made of amino acids 41. 20 different kinds
32.made of saccharides (mono, di, or poly)42. classified by the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
33.most concentrated form of food storage
34.stores energy molecule
35.examples include: waxes, steroids, some vitamins
TEST review Chapter 2 is due Monday 9/21
CURRENT EVENT is due Thursday 9/24
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Sept 21 - 25
M Review for Test
T Test Chapter 2 (Chemistry of Life)
Begin Ch. 7 & 19
W Begin reviewing for 6 weeks test (see review below)
review is due 9/28
Th Late start day
Current event due/begin presentations
F Continue presentations
Read Chapter 7 in textbook
DON'T FORGET - 6 WEEKS TEST IS TUESDAY 9/29
First 6 Weeks Test Review
1. List some things that identify living organisms:
2. What is a hypothesis?
3. What does it mean to “respond to a stimulus”?
4. What is the difference between a control and variable ?
5. Define the following:
data –
theory –
experiment –
6. What is homeostasis?
7. What is the purpose of MSDS and NFPA sign?
8. What types of things would a Biologist study ?
9. What is the difference between an observation and an inference ?
10. Put the following in order from broadest to most specific: Biosphere, organism, population
11. List two living organisms:
List two non-living substances:
12. Draw and label a water molecule .
Include the charges
13. What is the formula for water ? _____
14. What is a covalent bond ?
15. Draw and label an atom.
16. What is an Ionic bond ?
17. What is an isotope ?
18. What happens in a neutralization reaction ?
19. What do acids release when added to water ?
20. What do bases release when added to water ?
21. Draw and label a picture showing how water dissolves salt.
22. If tea is stirred into a glass of water:
What is the solvent ? __________
What is the solute ? __________
What is the combination of tea and water ? __________
23. Draw and label a pH scale. Include the correct ranges scale for : acid, base, and neutral
Explain the following:
“The pH scale is based on powers of ten”.
24. Identify the following:
a. stores and releases energy
b. structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls
c. ten monomers strung together
d. all of the chemical reactions that take place in an organism
e. substance that releases OH- ions when mixed with water
25. Name that Biomolecule:
a. very concentrated form of food storage
b. amino acids bonded together
c. structural part of plants like cellulose
d. DNA
e. keeps you warm
26. Explain how to use a triple-beam balance
How would you figure out the following:
“Determine the mass of a sample of salt that
has been placed into a container”:
What does it mean to “tare” or “zero” out ?
Explain how to read a meniscus:
Review graphing rules from notes
26. Review the Food Label / Nutrition activity
What does it mean to be “corrosive” ?
STUDY !
READ OUT LOUD TO YOURSELF,HAVE SOMEONE READ TO YOU,MAKE UP QUESTIONS,ANSWER THE QUESTIONS,
MAKE FLASH CARDS, HAVE SOMEONE QUIZ YOU,
TEST EACH OTHER and STUDY !
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September 28 - October 2
M Review for 6 weeks test
T 6 weeks Test
Continue reading Chapter 7 & 19
W Library - Journey through a cell
Cell Structure & Function
Chapter 7 vocab - make your own study guide due 10/2
Th Pep Rally
F Notes: Cell Theory and Organelles
Quiz - 10/12
End of 1st 6 weeks
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2nd 6 weeks
Oct 5 - 9
M Color Animal and Plant Cells due 10/6
Discuss differences between them
T Lab Microscopes
Prepare for lab
ch. 7 # 1-10 due 10/9
W Lab - Cells
x-word cells due 10/8
Th Notes Celllular membrane and movement
F Ch. 7 due
Lab - Cell membrane manipulative due 10/12
Don't forget Quiz 10/12
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Oct 12 - 16
M Quiz Cell Structures and function
Discuss Hypo, Hyper, Isotonic
x-word Cell structure and membrane due 10/13
T Review for test 10/16 (due 10/14)
W Review for test
Read Cell differentiation
Th Pep Rally ?????
F Test - Cell Structure, Function, Membrane
Color Bacteria and Viruses
Notes : The Development of the Cell Theory
Characteristics of Life:
1. Those in common with non-living things:
Movement, Response to a stimulus, Energy use, Waste
2. Those unique to living things:
Metabolism - use of energy to carry out cell activities and maintain internal organization
Water requirement
Organic compound production - made by living things, contain C
Growth and Development - orderly change
Reproduction with Inheritance - passing of characteristics from one genreation to the next; helps guide growth and development
Adaptation - abilities that help an organism survive in its environment
Biogenesis - All living things come from other living things of the same type
Cells - the basic unit of living things
People and their Ideas
Aristotle- Spontaneous Generation -
flowers magically appeared after
rain; maggots spring from meat
Jean Baptiste van Helmont- Recipe for mice
Robert Hooke - "cells" in cork
Francisco Redi- maggots come from fly life cycle
not spontaneous generation
Anton von Leeuwenhoek- discovered microorganisms; he
called them "animacules"
John Needham-improved on Redi's research;
heated beef broth
Lazzano Spallanzani - sealed flasks of beef broth
Louis Pasteur- disproved spontaneous
generation with S-shaped
goose necked flasks
Thomas Henry Huxley-coined the term "biogenesis"
Felix Dujardin- most microorganisms are one celled
Theodor Schwann-animals composed of cells
Matthias Schleiden-plants composed of cells
Rudolph Virchow-dividing cells = all cells
come from other cells
Cell Theory
1. The cell is the basic unit of life.
2. All organisms are made of cells.
3. All cells come from other cells.
Cell organelles for web
The cell wall is an outer protective structure made of cellulose; gives plants structure; is NOT found in animal cells; DOES NOT control the flow of materials into or out of the cell
The cell membrane controls what leaves and enters the cell.
Cytoplasm is the jellylike substance that fills the cell. It is also water soluble and is also known as cytosol.
The nucleus controls the activities of the cell.
The nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA and ribosomes.
Ribosomes make protein.
Lysosomes are vacuoles that contain digestive enzymes (also known as recycling centers or suicide bags in biology)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) is a transport system:
2 types: Smooth E.R. has no ribosomes; Rough E.R. has ribosomes on surface
Golgi body (apparatus) packages and processes proteins and lipids
Vacuole stores food and water for use by cell
Microfilaments connect adjacent cells for communication and transport
ENERGY molecules
Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell; there are 1000’s found in all cells in the body; they convert food energy to ATP energy
Chloroplast contain chlorophyll; they convert the Sun’s energy into food energy
CELL structure and function
Cells vary in shape and size; the structure is the key to the cell’s function
Ex: White blood cells (wbc) round; makes travel through the blood vessels easier
Red blood cells (rbc) are flat; in order to carry oxygen
Skin – flattened, irregular, triangular, waterproof and elastic
Nerve cells – long and thin; sends and receives messages
CELLS have the same general structure; ORGANISMS differ in the number of cells and in their organization.
THAT IS WHAT MAKES VARIETY !!!
Cellular Transport notes for web
I. Diffusion
Molecules are not stationary, instead they are constantly moving about.
Molecules have energy of motion (kinetic energy)
Collisions between moving molecules will spread the molecules apart until the molecules are evenly distributed throughout the available space.
The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is called diffusion.
Ex: Perfume diffusing through the air
Ex: Food coloring diffusing through water
II. Permeability
A material is permeable if it allows molecules to pass through
The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is permeable
III. Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of molecules across a permeable membrane
In osmosis, like diffusion, molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration
Hypotonic solutions are solutions which contain a lower concentration of dissolved substances than a solution to which it is being compared. In a hypotonic solution the cell swells or possibly explodes.
Hypertonic solutions are solutions which contain a higher concentration of dissolved substances that than the solution to which it is being compared. In hypertonic solutions the cell shrinks.
Isotonic solutions are solutions in which the same concentration is outside the cell membrane as inside. An isotonic solution is said to be at equilibrium but the particles keep moving into and out of the cell. There is not change in the cell with regards to swelling or shrinking.
IV. Turgor Pressure
Osmosis is one way that plants take in water through their root cells. Plant cells use osmosis to build up a large positive internal pressure called turgor pressure. Turgor pressure determines the rigidity and stability of plant tissues. Plants that lose turgor pressure wilt. This is known as plasmolysis.
V. Types of Passive Transport
Both osmosis and diffusion are types of passive transport. Passive transport requires no input of energy from the cell. Passive transport requires no energy. Examples of passive transport:
Diffusion : movement of molecules from high [ ] to low [ ]
Osmosis: movement of water across a permeable membrane from an area of high [ ] to low [ ]
BUT: there are some molecules that are too large to pass through the phospholipid bilayer. Therefore, some molecules must undergo passive transport by means of transport proteins. This is called facilitated diffusion.
Transport proteins: Two types:
channel proteins and carrier proteins
Channel proteins are tubelike and provide openings through which particles can diffuse.
Carrier proteins have a specific shape that fits a specific molecule. When the proper molecule combines with the protein, it changes shape and moves the molecule across the membrane. Facilitated diffusion is passive and requires no energy.
VI. Active transport:
Can a cell ever move particles from a region of low [ ] to a region of high [ ] ?
Yes, but energy must counteract the tendency of the molecules to move in the opposite direction. The transport of materials against a concentration gradient requires energy (ATP) and is called Active transport.
First, a transport protein binds with the substance to be transported.
Energy from the cell is used to change the shape of the proteins so that the particle is released on the other side of the membrane.
Once the particle is released, the protein regains its’ original shape.
Some cells can take in large molecules, groups of molecules. or even whole cells through endocytosis. The reverse process of endocytosis is exocytosis. Cells use this to expel wastes, and secrete cellular products.
IV. Review:
Passive transport: No energy, movement of molecules for high [ ] to low [ ], examples include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
Active transport : requires energy, movement of molecules from low [ ] to high [ ], use of transport proteins, exocytosis and endocytosis
Reflection
1. The diffusion of water molecules across a permeable membrane is called osmosis.
2. The movement of molecules from an area of high[ ] to low [ ] is called diffusion.
3. Hypotonic – cell swells; hypertonic – cell shrinks; isotonic – cell same
4. Turgor pressure is internal pressure in plant cell
Review Sheet – Cell Structure, Function, Theory
1.What is the difference between a eukaryote and a prokaryote ?
2.What is the purpose of the cell or plasma membrane?
3.Match the description of each of the cell parts using the letter for each.
a. cytoplasm e. mitochondria i. nucleus
b. nuclear membrane f. vacuole j. ribosome
c. cell membrane g. chloroplast k. Golgi
d. lysosome h. E. R. l. cell wall
_____ Stores food or wastes
_____ Control center of the cell
_____ Jellylike fluid that contains cell parts
_____ Network of canals that may be used to transport
and store substances
_____ Place where instructions are coded and stored
_____ Regulates the passage of materials to and from the
nucleus
_____ The building blocks of the cell are made here
_____ Allows materials to enter and leave the cell
_____ Releases energy from foods and makes it available
for cell activities
_____ Packages proteins and lipids & waste
_____ Carries out photosynthesis in plant cell
4. Briefly describe the contribution to the cell theory for each of the following:
a. Hooke – ___________________________________
b. DuJardin’ – ________________________________
c. Virchow – _________________________________
d. Redi – ____________________________________
e. Huxley – __________________________________
f. Leeuwenhoek – _____________________________
g. Schleiden/Schwann – ________________________
Study the microscope:
Calculate total magnification for each objective:
Low _____________
Medium _____________
High _____________
Be able to identify the organelles in both plant and animal cells.
List the differences between animal and plant cells.
Animal cell Plant cell
Keep studying.....
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Oct 19 - 23
M Student Holiday
T Notes Bacteria and Viruses
Study guide due 10/21
W Germ theory
Lytic cycle review
Th Immunity & review
TEST 10/27
F Where can bacteria be found ?
Review sheet for test due 10/26
Notes Bacteria - Chapters 19 & 40 in textbook ( Dragonfly)
Review - Eukaryote = a cell that has a true membrane-bound nucleus
Prokaryote = a cell that does NOT have a membrane-bound nucleus so the DNA is found throughout the cytoplasm.
Kingdoms Archaebacteria and Eubacteria are prokaryotic.
Kingdom Archaebacteria includes bacteria that can survive extreme conditions like the really hot temperatures of Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone Park.
Kingdom Eubacteria includes most of the bacteria like E. coli which is found in the lower intestines of warm blooded animals.
Bacteria is the oldest living organism. It is about 1000 times larger than a virus. It is believed to have appeared on the Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. There are more bacteria on Earth than any other organism.
Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled, prokaryotic, contain DNA, have a cell wall, and some have a protective capsule around the cell wall.
The cell wall contains murein which is similar to the cellulose found in plant cell walls.
Some bacteria have flagella for movement.
Some bacteria contain bacteriophyll that enables them to make their own food through photosynthesis.
Classification of Bacteria
Bacteria can be different shapes:
Cocci = round
Bacilli = rod
Spirillum = spiral
When you have more than one bacterium, the name changes to reflect that:
Diplo = pair
Strepto = chain
Staphylo = cluster
When you add these prefixes to the name for the shape of the bacteria you get names like:
Diplo + Coccus = Diplococcus
Staphylo + bacillus = Staphylobacillus
Look at the pictures in the textbook:
Capsule = sticky substance on outside of bacterium ( not all have it)
Cell wall = give bacterium structure
Cell membrane = regulates what enters and leaves bacterium
Cytoplasm = jelly-like substance (cytosol)
DNA = genetic material
cilia = hair-like structures for movement (not all have it; some use air and water)
flagella = tail-like structure ( again, not all have it)
Sometimes bacteria need to be able to survive harsh conditions like extreme hot or cold. They do this by forming a protective structure called an endospore. To break them down it takes really high heat in combination with high pressure supplied by a machine called an autoclave.
Life Functions
Bacteria are described by the way they get their energy.
Obligate aerobes require Oxygen to make energy.
Example : Diptheria
Obligate anaerobes cannot survive in the presence of Oxygen. This is a type of fermentation.
Example : Botulism and Tetanus
Facultative anaerobes don't need Oxygen but it will not stop them from growing.
Example:
E. coli ...the same bacteria that is in your lower intestines.
Reproduction
Binary fission = Asexual reproduction; is the most common; one cell splits into two.
Conjugation = sexual reproduction; the bacteria exchange DNA through a connecting tube and then split asexually. This creates "genetic variability" among bacteria so that they are not all the same
How do they acquire energy?
Some are autotrophic; example = Cyanobacteria
Some are heterotrophic.
Some are saprophytes or decomposers (break down decaying matter)
Some are parasites which means that they harm their hosts.
Some are symbiotic which means that although they get their energy from other organisms, they both benefit; none are harmed. One example is nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil. They convert Nitrogen found in the air into Nitrogen for the soil. They are found on the roots of Legume (bean or pea) plants and provide Nitrogen for the plant while living off of the root system.
Importance
Helpful Bacteria
Decomposers - saprophytes
Nitrogen fixers - Convert N from air into N for plants
Food Preparation - Used to make dairy products like cheese, milk yogurt
Harmful Bacteria
Some bacteria are pathogens like Tetanus and diptheria
Some spoil food and produce toxins as they feed and grow like Salmonella and Botulism.
Food spoilage can be slowed down by heating , applying salt, smoking or using preservatives.
Review Sheet – Cell Structure, Function, Movement
1. What is the difference between a eukaryote and a prokaryote ?
2. What is the purpose of the cell or plasma membrane?
3. Match the description of each of the cell parts using the letter for each.
a. cytoplasm e. mitochondria i. nucleus
b. nuclear membrane f. vacuole j. ribosome
c. cell membrane g. chloroplast k. Golgi
d. lysosome h. E. R. l. cell wall
_____ Stores food or wastes
_____ Control center of the cell
_____ Jellylike fluid that contains cell parts
_____ Network of canals that may be used to transport
and store substances
_____ Place where instructions are coded and stored
_____ Regulates the passage of materials to and from the
nucleus
_____ The building blocks of the cell are made here
_____ Allows materials to enter and leave the cell
_____ Releases energy from foods and makes it available
for cell activities
_____ Packages proteins and lipids & waste
_____ Carries out photosynthesis in plant cell
4. Briefly describe the contribution to the cell theory for each of the following:
a. Hooke – ___________________________________
b. DuJardin’ – ________________________________
c. Virchow – _________________________________
d. Redi – ____________________________________
e. Huxley – __________________________________
f. Leeuwenhoek – _____________________________
g. Schleiden/Schwann – ________________________
5. Draw and label the processes of “exocytosis” & “endocytosis”.
What is pinocytosis ? What is phagocytosis ?
6. What is active transport?
Give an example
7. List the parts that make up a cell membrane and
their functions:
8. Draw and label a phospholipid:
9. Why can polar substances, like water, pass easily across the cell membrane ?
10. Draw and label cells in solutions that are hypo, hyper, & isotonic:
11. Define and illustrate “diffusion”.
12. Define and illustrate “osmosis”
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Oct 26 - 30
M Review sheet due
Review for test
T TEST - Bacteria, Viruses, Immunity
W Review tests
Understanding Viruses
Th LATE START
Look at bacterial plates
Review sheet for 2nd 6 weeks test (TEST is 11/3)
F Review
Understanding Bacteria
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November 2 - 6
M Review for 6 weeks test
T 2nd 6 weeks test
W Notes: Taxonomy and Classification
Ch. 18
Th Silly Science Dichotomous Keys
F Shark Dichotomous Keys due 11/10
Chapter 18 Taxonomy/Classification - Bielke Notes (Dragonfly)
History of Classification
Aristotle (4th century B.C) was a Greek philosopher who divided organisms into 2 groups: Plants and Animals
He further divided Animals into those that had blood and those that did not.
He also divided Animals into groups that walked, flew, or swam. His systems were used until the 1600's.
Carolus Linnaeus (18th century) was a Swedish scientist who classified plants and animals according to similarities in form. He divided living things into one of two "Kingdoms": Plant and Animal. He was the first to design a system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature ( meaning a two name system of naming). This gave each organism two names: a Genus and a Species.
The Genus is ALWAYS capitalized and the Species is NEVER capitalized.
BOTH are either underlined or typed in italics.
Example:Hedera helix (English ivy)
His classification system is still in use today except now we have 6 Kingdoms.
Based on Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature system, each organism is given a two part scientific name. An organism may have several "common" names based on the region in which they are found; but they will only have one scientific name.
Example: Mountain lion, cougar, and puma are all common names that differ based on where you live. However, the scientific name for all of these is
Felis concolor.
There are 7 levels in the classification system which consist of :
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
One way to remember these levels in the correct order is using the following saying: King, Paul, Came, Over, For, Ginger, Snaps with (K)ing standing for Kingdom, (P)aul standing for Phylum, etc.
The Kingdom level is the broadest and contains the largest number of organisms. All organisms are presently divided into 6 kingdoms:
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
The following are descriptions of each Kingdom:
Kingdom Eubacteria are the true bacteria.
Kingdom Archaebacteria are found in harsh conditions.
They have no true nucleus are so are Prokaryotes.
Some can move and some can make their own food (autotroph). Some must rely on other organisms for food (heterotroph).
Kingdom Protista consists of Protists. They are one-celled and have a true nucleus (Eukaryote). Some can move and some are autotrophic.
Kingdom Fungi consists of different types of fungus. They are multicellular and eukaryotic. They do not move on their own but they are heterotrophic.
Kingdom Plantae includes the plants. They are multicellular and eukaryotic. They do not move and are autotrophic.
Kingdom Animalia includes all animals. They are multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic and can move.
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November 9 - 13
M Student Holiday
T Sharks due / review
Ch. 18 Classification due 11/11
TEST - Friday
W Ch. 18 due
Review Sheet due 11/12
Th Review for test
F TEST - Taxonomy & Classification
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November 16 - 20
M Introduction to Plants
T Monocots/Dicots foldable due 11/18
W Cellular Energy (Animals & Plants)
Th Continue Cellular Energy
F Continue Cellular Energy
. Stems
A. External Structure of Stems
1. Herbaceous Stem – lacks secondary growth, not woody, lives one season
Node-a region on the stem where a leaf arises
Internode-a region on the stem between two nodes
Arrangements:
Alternate- one leaf arises at each node
Opposite- two leaves arise at each node
Whorled- three or more leaves arise at each node
Example: Pine trees with three needles in a bundle.
Both Dicots and Monocots can have herbaceous stems
2. Woody Stem – has secondary growth (annular rings), lives many years
Leaf scar- can be found at the node along with buds
Terminal bud- found at the end (terminus) of the twig
Terminal bud scale scar- can be found every few nodes surrounding the stem showing where the previous buds have been. The age of the twig can be determined by counting these.
Lenticel- a small rip in the bark that allows gas exchange
Lateral bud- a bud found just above a scale scar or leaf
B. Internal Structure of Stems
1. Herbaceous stems Dicots and Monocots can be distinguished by the arrangement of vascular bundles (VBs) 590
Dicots have VBs arranged in a ring and contain cambium
Monocots have scattered VBs and no cambium
2. Woody stems (Dicots only) p. 592 and 593
Bark is composed of wax-filled cork cells and phloem cells that
conduct food throughout the plant body.
Vascular Cambium is a thin layer of merestematic cells that add
phloem to the outside and xylem to the inside of the stem.
Wood is xylem (a complex tissue) that conducts water through the plant. It is arranged in rings of growth because the xylem cells grown in spring are large (more rain) cells, while summer xylem cells are smaller (less rain).
C. Stem Growth
1. Primary growth is growth in length. The apical meristem is constantly adding new cells to the plant during the growing season. During the fall, it is covered with scales forming a bud which protects tender cells during winter. In spring the bud scales fall off (leaving bud scale scars) allowing growth of the young shoot tip.
2. Secondary growth is increase in girth. Only dicots have secondary growth. The vascular cambium is constantly adding new xylelm and phloem.
D. Modified Stems p. 594
1. Stolons(runners) are horizontal stems above ground(St. Augustine grass).
2. Rhizomes are horizontal below grounds with nodes and internodes.
3. Tubers are underground stems enlarged for storage (Potato).
4. Corms these are solid stems covered by dry scale leaves (Crocus).
5. Bulbs are greatly reduced stems with thick flesh scale leaves (onion).
E. Functions of Stems-support and conduction
IV. Leaves
A. External Structure
1. Parts of a simple leaf p. 595
· Blade, Midrib, Petiole, Bud, Stipules
2. Simple vs. Compound leaves p. 595
· Leaf with a single blade
· Leaf blade divided into many leaftlets
3. Veination
· Parallel (monocots)
· Palmate (dicots) a type of reticulate (netted) veination
· Pinnate (dicots) also a type of reticulate veination
4. Other features :
· Margins (entire, toothed, wavy, lobed, etc.)
· Shape (cordate, renate, ovate, obovate, etc.)
· Apex = tip (pointed, blunt, plural)
· Surfaces (smooth, rough, hairy)
B. Internal Structure p. 596
1. Upper epidermis with cuticle
2. Mesophyll
Spongy and Palisade
3. Vascular Bundles (veins)
Xylem and Phloem
4. Lower epidermis with stomata (guard cells) p. 597
C. Leaf Growth
Leaves start as leaf primordial formed by the apical meristem of the shoot tip. Patterns of leaf arrangement on stems can be seen even here at the beginning.
D. Modified Leaves
1. Storage- Example: succulents like Jade plant
2. Spines- Example: cactus spines are actually leaves
3. Bracts- Example: the ‘petals’ of the Poinsettia are bracts
4. Trapping leaves- leaves of carnivorous plants are modified to trap insects, digest their bodies and absorb Nitrogen from them. Example: Sundew, Pitcher plant
E. Function of Leaves
1. The two main functions are Photosynthesis* and Transpiration
2. *How do raw materials get in & end products get out of the leaf?
6 CO2 + 12 H2O à C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
Raw Materials
· CO2 comes in through guard cells
· H2O comes in through xylem of the veins from roots
· Chlorophyll is present in chloroplasts of mesophyll
End Products
· Glucose leaves through phloem of veins
· O2 leaves through guard cells of stomata
· H2O vapor leaves through the stomata
3. Transpiraton is necessary for maintaining the SPAC
II. Roots
A. External structure of roots
1. Dicots-have a tap root system = one primary root with all lateral roots branching from it.
2. Monocots – have a fibrous root system = multiple roots spread and branch and are all about the same size.
B. Internal structure of roots
1. Dicots-xylem is in the center (usually star-shaped) region
Phloem is between the xylem (in the arms of the star)
Vascular tissue is in the center of the root
2. Monocots-xylem forms a ring around the root
Phloem is found in between the xylem (alternating)
Pith is found in the center of the root
3. Important Structures:
a. Epidermis with root hairs
b. Cortex (storage tissue)
c. Endodermis with Casperian strip made of suberin
d. Pericycle (where lateral roots start)
e. Vascular tissue: Xylem-transports water and minerals and provides rigid support
Phloem-transports food (glucose)
Cambium-adds new cells in both directions
f.Pith- (present only in monocot roots)
C.Root growth
There are 3 zones or regions and a root cap:
Region of Differentiation
Region of Elongation
Region of Cell Division
Root cap
D. Modified roots
1. Adventitious roots- prop roots. Cypress ‘knees’, aerial roots
2. Storage roots-tap roots that are greatly enlarged for storage
E. Function of roots
1. Anchorage- Roots keep the plant from washing away or blowing over
2. Absorption- Roots are responsible for the uptake of water and minerals. SPAC= Soil-plant-air-contiuum
II. Roots
A. External structure of roots
1. Dicots-have a tap root system = one primary root with all lateral roots branching from it.
2. Monocots – have a fibrous root system = multiple roots spread and branch and are all about the same size.
B. Internal structure of roots
1. Dicots-xylem is in the center (usually star-shaped) region
Phloem is between the xylem (in the arms of the star)
Vascular tissue is in the center of the root
2. Monocots-xylem forms a ring around the root
Phloem is found in between the xylem (alternating)
Pith is found in the center of the root
3. Important Structures:
a. Epidermis with root hairs
b. Cortex (storage tissue)
c. Endodermis with Casperian strip made of suberin
d. Pericycle (where lateral roots start)
e. Vascular tissue:
Xylem-transports water and minerals and provides rigid support
Phloem-transports food (glucose)
Cambium-adds new cells in both directions
f. Pith- (present only in monocot roots)
C. Root growth
There are 3 zones or regions and a root cap:
Region of Differentiation
Region of Elongation
Region of Cell Division
Root cap
D. Modified roots
a. Adventitious roots- prop roots. Cypress ‘knees’, aerial roots
b. Storage roots-tap roots that are greatly enlarged for storage
E. Function of roots
a. Anchorage- Roots keep the plant from washing away or blowing over
b. Absorption- Roots are responsible for the uptake of water and minerals. SPAC= Soil-plant-air-contiuum
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November 23 - 27
M Science Day
T Review
W - F Thanksgiving Break
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November 30 - Dec 4
M Cellular Energy
T Discussion & Review
W Continue discussion and review
TEST 12/4
Th Review
Review Sheet for 6 weeks test
F TEST
Review Sheet for 6 weeks test
Bielke Notes - Cellular Energy
Light travels from the sun as waves of Energy.
Short wavelengths(closer together) carry more energy
than long wavelengths.
Visible light is a mixture of many colors.
[------------------------------------------------------]
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
Low energy High energy
ROYGBIV (acronym for colors)
*Pigment absorbs light
*Different pigments absorb different wavelengths
*Wavelengths not absorbed are reflected
*Reflected colors are what you see
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is a pigment capable of trapping light energy
Chlorophyll absorbs red, orange, blue, indigo, violet
reflects green, yellow
Therefore: Plants that have chlorophyll are green.
Photosynthesis (takes place in the chloroplasts)
Requirements Products By-products
Sunlight Carbohydrates Oxygen
Water (Carbon + water) Water
Chlorophyll Glucose Carbon Dioxide -CO2
sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O -----------------> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
chlorophyll
Two Main Reactions:
1. Light Reaction = Light required
Energy from sun is captured to make ATP energy molecule
that stores energy.
ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate
H2O splits to remove H's and O is released into atmosphere.
2. Dark Reaction (Calvin Cycle) = occurs 24 hours / day
Plants use energy from ATP to make glucose (sugar).
H's combine with CO2 to form carbohydrate (sugar +
starch) C6H12O6
Cellular Respiration (takes place in the mitochondria)
C 6H12O6 + H2O + O2 -----------> Energy + CO2 + H2O
Glucose + water + Oxygen = ATP + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Two types of Respiration:
1. Aerobic = (With Oxygen)
2. Anaerobic = (Without Oxygen) = fermentation
(build up of lactic acid - ex. your muscles
ache after running).
*All organisms requre energy for life
*Original source of energy is the Sun
Autotroph ( ex. plant) = producer - provides food
for all other organisms in an Ecosystem
Heterotrophs = consumers -
Herbivores - eat plants
Carnivores - eat animals (meat)
Predator - seeks prey
Scavenger - seeks dead prey
Omnivore - eats plants and animals
Decomposer - saprobes - ex. bacteria
and fungi - break down dead organisms
and recycle nutrients
Food Chain = transfer of energy from one organism to
another.
Ex. grass-->caterpillar-->shrew-->hawk-->decomposer
-->nutrients
Plants--->animal 1 ----> animal 2 ----> animal 3
( primary ( secondary (tertiary
consumer ) consumer ) consumer)
Only 10% of Energy eaten is stored in the body (under
normal circumstances). The rest is lost as heat.
Food Web = an interconnection of food chains.
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December 7 - 11
M Review for 6 weeks test
T 6 weeks Test
Review sheet for Final Exams
W Work in class
Th Work in class & review
F Review for Final Exams
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Dec 14 - 17
Final Exams
Check Bowie website for dates and times
Have a great holiday
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Spring Semester 2010
Jan 5 - 8
NOT YET UPDATED
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November 17 - 21
M Drawings due
Notes: Cell cycle, Mitosis & Cancer (see below)
Cell cycle homework due 11/18
T Practice phases of cell cycle
Ch. 10 # 1-10 p.257 due 11/19
W Library computer lab : Mitosis
Review sheet for Test (see below)(11/21)
Th Review for Test
Homework: Crossword puzzle
TEST tomorrow
F Test Cell Cycle, Mitosis, Cancer
Homework: Template - Draw, label, color phases of Meiosis due 11/24
web notes for pp cellular reproduction: cell division by mitosis
I. Cell Growth
all living things start life as a single cell
growth results when your body forms new cells
new cells are formed by cell division
II. Cell Division
there are 2 types of cell division
1. mitosis (division of body (somatic) cells
2. meiosis (division of sex cells (gametes)
III. Mitosis
two cells are formed from one cell
new cells are similar to the cell from which they came; the new cells replace old cells
root cells, skin cells, muscle cells are just a few examples of cells that divide by mitosis
for many simple organisms (like bacteria and some algae) mitosis = reproduction
mitosis is not a one step process
as a cell divides some of the cell parts change
as a cell divides it forms two new cells. the number of cells increases every time cells divide
the number of chromosomes in each cell remains the same
IV. The Cell Cycle
Interphase (resting) “resting” describes cells that have not started to divide
occurs between cell divisions ; longest part of the cell cycle
Chromatin is coiled DNA inside the nucleus; later in the cell cycle chromatin
condenses to form chromosomes
during interphase, the DNA is replicated (copied) and the cell prepares for division
Prophase (mitosis begins)
during this phase the chromatin condenses to form chromosomes
the original chromosome and the copied chromosome form a pair
Each member of the pair is called a chromatid
they are joined together at a central point called the centromere
the membrane surrounding the nucleus begins to disappear
Metaphase
membrane surrounding the nucleus totally disappears
sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell
Anaphase
chromatids separate at the centromere and move to opposite ends (poles) of the cell
once separated, the chromatids are now identical daughter chromosomes
Telophase
nucleus forms around both sets of daughter chromosomes
cell splits and two new cells are formed (cytokinesis)
Cancer
cell division that is out of control
a cell that divides too fast can form a tumor
cells divide too fast because of mutations (changes) in the cells’ DNA
mutations can be caused by genetics or environmental factors such as UV radiation from the
sun or tobacco products
Carcinogen = a cancer causing substance
Reflect/Review
In mitosis , how many cells are formed from each dividing cell ? 2
What is copied in the nucleus before the cells divide ? DNA
If a cell has 46 chromosomes and divides by mitosis, how many chromosomes will each new cell have ? 46
Name _________________________Per ___
Review Sheet Cell Cycle , Mitosis, Cancer
1. The replication of DNA is such a way that each new cell receives exactly the same kind and number of
chromosomes is called ______________.
For the following questions, identify the stage of the cell cycle that best fits:
2. _____ the nuclear envelope disappears
3. _____ chromatids begin to move to opposite poles
4. _____ chromatids line up at the cell’s equator
5. _____ threads of protein spindle fibers appear
between the centrioles
6. _____ chromosomes replicate
7. _____ chromatids are drawn to opposite poles by
spindle fibers
8. _____ nuclear envelope forms around the DNA in
each new daughter cell
9. _____ the fourth phase of Mitosis
10._____ nuclear envelope begins dissolving
11. If a somatic cell begins its cycle with 20
chromosomes, how many chromosomes will it have at
the end of the cycle ? _____
12. Define the term haploid :
13. Define the term diploid :
14. How many chromosomes are in a normal human gamete?
15. How many chromosomes are in a normal human somatic
cell ?
16. Define the following terms:
oncogene :
contact inhibition:
metastasis:
cytokinesis:
17. List some causes of cancer:
18. List some treatments for cancer:
19. How do benign and malignant tumors differ ?
20. List the steps of the cell cycle in the correct order:
21. List the steps of Mitosis in the correct order:
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November 21 - 26
M Meiosis drawings due
Science Day
T Review
W - F Thanksgiving Holiday
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December 1 - 5
M Notes:Meiosis & Gametogenesis(see below)
T Practice phases of Meiosis
Mitosis vs. Meiosis due 12/3
W Review sheet for test due 12/4(see below)
Meiosis Animations
Th Review for test
F Test meiosis, gametogenesis
Review sheet for final exam
What is Meiosis?
I. When less is more
A. Organisms can reproduce asexually ( DNA from only one parent, identical) or sexually ( DNA from two parents)
B. Body cells of every species have a characteristic number of chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pair) in each body (somatic) cell
C. A cell that contains two complete sets of chromosomes (2n) is diploid. In humans, body cells are diploid (2n) 23 pair = 46
D. Human sex cells (gametes) (egg/sperm) combine to produce offspring. Gametes contain 23 individual chromosomes (half the number of a diploid body cell or “n”)
E. A cell with only one complete set of chromosomes is called haploid.
F. Why is it important that gametes be haploid? To keep the number of chromosomes stable from generation to generation. The fusion of haploid gametes creates offspring with diploid cells (n + n = 2n)
II. Meiosis
A. Meiosis is a type of cellular reproduction in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half
Cells produced by meiosis are haploid. What letter is used to represent haploid ? n
B. Chromosomes Pairing
Body cells contain 46 chromosomes. These 46 chromosomes are arranged in 23 pairs. Each of these pairs is called a homologous pair. With one exception, each pair contains chromosomes that are exactly alike in size.
C. Only one pair differs (23rd pair). In females this pair is alike XX and in males this pair is different Xy. Which chromosome is larger ? X
III. Phases of Meiosis
A. Before meiosis begins the cell is in Interphase (resting phase). Just like in mitosis the DNA is replicated during this phase, then the cell is ready to begin meiosis.
Meiosis consists of two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II
IV. Meiosis I
A. Prophase I: replicated chromosomes attach to each other. Homologous chromosomes align with one another to form a homologous pair. *Each homologous pair consists of four chromatids called a tetrad. Crossing over may occur during this phase.
B. Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
C. Anaphase I: homologous pairs are separated and pulled to opposite sides (poles) of the cell by spindle fibers
D. Telophase I: cytokinesis occurs resulting in 3 haploid cells. (each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids) (the division of the homologous pairs into each gamete is random= random assortment
V. Meiosis II (meiotic division)
A. Prophase II: chromosomes condense again. Which phase did we skip ? Interphase, because DNA does NOT replicate this time.
B. Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up along the center of the cell (sometimes referred to as the equatorial plate)
C. Anaphase II: Chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite sides of the cell
D. Telophase II: Cytokinesis occurs. 4 haploid cells are produced
VI. Meiosis Provides Genetic Variation in Two ways
1. Random assortment of chromosomes
2. Crossing over; meiosis allows the shuffling of chromosomes through crossing over during Prophase I
Crossing over – the exchange of genetic material between homologous pairs of chromosomes
Remember that genetic variation is important to species survival, expecially in a changing environment
Review – Meiosis & Gametogenesis
1. Within the nucleus of eukaryotes are long thin strands of DNA known as ___________.
2. Haploid human cells have ___ chromosomes. The symbol used to represent this is ___. Examples of haploid cells include the female ____ and the male ________. Another name for a reproductive or sex cell is a ____________. Gametes become haploid through a special form of cell division called _________. Differences between the egg and sperm include:
The egg (ova) is much _________ than the sperm.
The sperm can move on its own because it has a __________.
2. Meiosis occurs in all multicellular organisms that reproduce __________. Amoebas and other unicellular organisms reproduce by splitting in half. This is an example of _________reproduction.
3. The diploid chromosome number for human cells is _____. All cells except the sex cells or __________ are diploid or ___n.
Diploid cells or body cells are also called ___________ cells.
All body cells or ____________ cells divide by a process known as ____________. The end result of this division is two ___________ cells each with _____ chromosomes.
4. Sexual reproduction is the union of two (haploid / diploid ) cells to form a fertilized egg known as a ________. The human zygote (offspring) has ____ chromosomes and is (haploid / diploid ).
5. Meiosis insures that each kid will not look ___________ to his parents. This is due to a process called __________ _____.
During this time ___________ (like) chromosomes pair up and exchange some of their DNA.
6. A major difference between Meiosis and Mitosis is that after Telophase I, there is NO DNA ___________. If the DNA replicated again, it would defeat the purpose of reduction division...meaning to reduce the human chromosome number from ____ to ____. So, in meiosis, a single diploid cell ends up with four ____________ cells. This happens because the DNA replicates _________ and the cells divide __________.
7. The chromosomes are alike except for the _______ pair. In females, this pair is ____ and in males it is _____. The X chromosome is much larger than the ____.
8. Meiosis is also known as “reduction division” because the DNA replicates
_______ but the cells divide _________.
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December 8 - 12
M Review for 6 weeks exam
H.W. Final exam review sheet(see below)
T 3rd 6 weeks exam
H.W. Final exam review sheet
W Final exam review
Th Final exam review
F Final exam review
Name ____________________________Per___
Bielke - Biology Final Exam Review Sheet - Fall 2008
Safety
1. Draw, label, and color a sample NFPA sign.
2. Using Appendix B in the back of your textbook, draw the symbol and explain the hazard associated with each of the following:
a. safety goggles: e. sharp object:
b. lab apron: f. hand washing:
c. poison: g. physical safety:
d. flames: h. electric shock:
3.Make sure you read through Appendix B to remind you of the "Specific Safety Rules".
Scientific Method
4.Define each of the following and practice writing examples of each part of the scientific method.
a. Scientific Method: e. independent variable:
b. Hypothesis: f. dependent variable:
c. Observation: g. control:
d. Conclusion: h. experiment:
The Science of Biology
5. Define the following terms and give examples where appropriate:
a. science: e. inference
b. stimulus: f. development:
c. adaptation g. evolution:
d. homeostasis:
The Chemistry of Life
6. Match the following terms:
___1. atom a. positively charged ion
___2. compound b. negatively charged ion
___3. atomic number c. sharing of electrons
___4. ionic bond d. smallest part of an element
___5. covalent bond e. two or more different atoms bonded together
___6. cation f. positively charged particle found in nucleus
___7. proton g. two or more elements bonded together
___8. anion h. bond between + and - due to loss of e-
___9. molecule i. equal to number of protons in nucleus
7. Draw and label a water molecule:
Draw and label an atom:
8. Draw three water molecules correctly bonded together.
9. What kind of bond holds the water molecule together ? _______________
10. For each of the following, give an example that explains it's purpose:
a. universal solvent = e. density =
b. cohesion = f. transparency =
c. adhesion =
d. high specific heat =
11. Draw and label a pH scale.
12. What is an acid ? Where, on the pH scale, are the strongest acids located ?
13. What is a base ? Where, on the pH scale, are the weakest bases located ?
14. How can a base be neutralized ?
15. Choose the correct answer for each of the following:
A. protein B. lipid C. carbohydrate D. nucleic acid
___1. twenty different kinds of these exist
___2. can be a mono, di, or polysaccharide
___3. helps regulate bodily functions like reproduction
___4. serves as insulation for the body
___5. classified by the number of C atoms in the molecule
___6. another name for a fat
___7. DNA or RNA
___8. composed of amino acids
___9. cellulose
___10. stores energy
Cells
16.In the space below, discuss the differences between plant cells and animal cells.
17.Identify each of the following organelles:
_______________a. jellylike fluid that contains cell parts
_______________b. canals that can be used to transport substances
_______________c. controls what leaves and enters the nucleus
_______________d. releases energy from foods for use in cellular activities
_______________e. captures energy from the sun in order to manufacture food
_______________f. stores food and water
_______________g. packages wastes and protein for removal from the cell
_______________h. regulates what enters and leaves the cell
_______________i. provides support and contains cellulose
_______________j. control center of the cell
_______________k. small structure within a cell that has a specific function
18.What contribution did the following people give toward development of the cell theory ?
a. Robert Hooke-
b. Schleiden and Schwann-
c. Thomas Henry Huxley-
d. Rudolph Virchow-
e. Anton von Leeuwenhoek-
f. Felix DuJardin-
19.List the three parts of the cell theory.
a.
b.
c
20. Based on what we know about life ; discuss how you know that you are a living organism by citing evidence below:
21.Be able to identify the parts of a microscope and how they are used.
22.Define the following terms:
a. diffusion - b. osmosis -
23.Discuss the cell membrane. Make sure you include: what it is composed of and what it
means to be a "fluid mosaic model".
24.What is the difference between active and passive transport ?
25.How does a molecule such as glucose move across the membrane ?
26.Illustrate the following: Be sure to show the direction of movement of water.
a. Cell in Hypotonic solution
b. Cell in Hypertonic solution
c. Cell in Isotonic solution
27.What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis ?
What are pinocytosis and phagocytosis ?
29.What happens if a plant is not watered enough ? Use the correct terminology to explain your answer.
Cellular Energy
30. Define the following terms:
a. ATP -
b. ADP -
c. autotroph -
d. heterotroph -
31.Where do cells get the energy to do biological work ?
32.Write the equation for Photosynthesis:
33.Where does photosynthesis take place ?
34.What is the difference between the light-dependent reaction and the light-independent reaction?
35.What is the Calvin Cycle ?
36.Write the equation for Cellular Respiration :
37.Where does respiration take place ?
38.What is Glycolysis?
39.What is Fermentation ?
40.What is the Krebs cycle ?
41.Why is the Krebs cycle known as the Citric Acid Cycle ?
42.Define the following terms:
a. autotroph- b. heterotroph-
c. herbivore- d. carnivore-
e. predator- f. scavenger-
g. omnivore- h. decomposer-
43.Draw a food chain showing the correct transfer of energy.
44.Draw a food web with at least 7 different organisms.
Make sure you show the correct transfer of energy. (page 71 in textbook)
45.The ______ is the ultimate source of energy. ______is an energy molecule composed of adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups.
Why do leaves appear green?
46.Photosynthesis removes _____ from the air and gives off _____. It also converts light energy to ________ energy locked in glucose. It also breaks down water. Energy is released from ATP when the bond is broken between two __________groups.
Mitosis,Cell Cycle, Cancer
Cells are small because it is more efficient for nutrients to get into them and wastes to be removed.
47. For the following questions identify the stage of cell cycle / mitosis that best fits:
___a. nuclear envelope disappears
___b. chromatids move to opposite ends of cell
___c. spindle fibers appear between centrioles
___d. chromosomes shorten and thicken
___e. nuclear envelope disappears
___f. the fourth phase of mitosis
___g. chromatids line up at center of cell
___h. chromosomes replicate
___i. the first phase of mitosis
___j. the last phase of mitosis
48. What is cytokinesis ?
49. Cell division insures the precise and equal distribution of ________ to each of the two new daughter cells.
50. Each new cell contains exactly the same ____________ of chromosomes as the parent. The new cell has all the necessary information for every ________________ of the organism.
Meiosis, Gametogenesis
51. What is the difference between somatic cells and gametes?
52. What is the difference between haploid and diploid cells?
54.The process of cellular division that results in the formation of gametes is ____________________.
55.The female gamete is the ____ while the male gamete is the _________.
Which is larger ? ____________ Which can move on its own? _____________.
Who has more gametes, female or male ? ____________
56.How do Meiosis and Mitosis differ ?
57.How are Meiosis and Mitosis similar ?
58.What is crossing-over ?
59.What is “reduction division” ?
60.Human somatic cells have _____ chromosomes, while human gametes have _____ chromosomes.
Be sure to read through your binder & review all assignments, review sheets, notes, etc.
***The final exam schedule should be posted at www.jbhs.org
HAVE A SAFE AND WONDERFUL WINTER BREAK. Don't forget that you need to be reading Chromosome 6.
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SPRING 2009
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WELCOME BACK !!!
Hope your holiday was great and that you got some good reading time in.
January 5 - 6
M Student Holiday
T DNA Discovery
W Notes: Nucleic Acids, DNA replication
Th Singing about DNA
DNA Project - due January 21
Chapter 12 vocabulary due 1/9
nucleotide, base pairing, replication, DNA polymerase,
messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA,
transcription, translation, codon, anticodon,
chromatin
F Vocab due
Size of the Genome
DNA, RNA practice due 1/12
Nucleic Acids notes
Nucleic Acids are the chemical link between generations dating back to the beginning of life on earth. A nucleic acid is a complex macromolecule that stores information in cells in the form of a code. Nucleic acids are made of long chains of nucleotides. Nucleotides are made of three components: sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base
Examples of nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
It’s components are : deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base. James Watson and Francis Crick proposed that DNA has a specific pairing between nitrogen bases:
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
Watson and Crick also said the paired nitrogen bases formed two long strands of nucleotides that compliment each other (complimentary base pairing rule). Nitrogen bases are connected between sugars and phosphates. They declared “ this structure is a double helix”. DNA forms chromosomes, units of genetic information which pass from parent to offspring. If you unraveled all your chromosomes from all of your cells and laid out the DNA end to end, the strands would stretch from the Earth to the Moon about 6000 times.
RNA has a different sugar than DNA. RNA = ribonucleic acid. It’s components are: ribose (sugar), phosphate group, nitrogen base. It also has different bases than DNA. Adenine pairs with Uracil (There is no Thymine in RNA). Cytosine still pairs with Guanine.
Review: DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Sugar – deoxyribose Sugar – ribose
Adenine – Thymine denine – Uracil
DNA Replication
Why must DNA replicate ? Every time a cell divides, it must first make a copy of it’s chromosomes (during Interphase). Therefore, each cell can have a complete set of chromosomes. Without replication, species could not survive and individuals could not successfully grow and reproduce.
How DNA replicates: DNA is a molecule composed of two strands, each consisting of a sequence of nucleotides. The order of the nitrogen bases on one strand mandates the sequence of bases on the complementary strand. If you know the bases on one strand you can predict which bases will occur on the complementary strand.
A-T, G-C, etc.
During replication each strand serves as a template to create a new strand.
Steps in Replication: enzymes break down the hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands unzipping the molecule. As the DNA unzips, free nucleotides (from surroundings in the nucleus) bond to the single strands by base pairing. Another enzyme bonds the new nucleotides into a chain. The result of this process is the formation of two DNA molecules, each identical to the original molecule.
Reflect and Review:
1. What are the two types of nucleic acids?
2. What are the three components of a nucleotide?
3. Compare DNA with RNA.
4. List the steps in DNA replication
5. Make up your own questions from the notes.
DNA Model Project - T-shirt or Jewelry
Due: January 21, 2008
When scientist Rosalind Franklin first saw the model of DNA created by Watson and Crick based on her research, Ms. Franklin exclaimed, "All that matters is the beauty"
By re-creating a model of DNA, you too can experience Ms. Franklin's delight in the beauty of the 'master molecule of life'.
In this project you will design a t-shirt that depicts the structure of DNA and information about it on the front and back.
You are only limited by your creativity and imagination.
Requirements for model.
1. Structurally correct.
2. Three-dimensional examples include puff paint,beads,etc)
3. Double helix formation.
4. Able to wear.
5. Labels / explanation evident(key on front or back).
6. Unique/creative slogan or phrase to aid in memory.
*NO LATE PROJECTS WILL BE ACCEPTED.
**********************************************************
Jan 12 - 16
M DNA practice due
Begin Protein Synthesis(notes below)
Study guide assignment due 1/13
T study guide due
continue protein synthesis
coloring due 1/14
W coloring due
review protein synthesis
Th Discuss Chromosome 6 - bring your books and study guides
F Video "the Power of Genes"
DNA Project due 1/21 - don't forget
OPEN NOTE Quiz DNA,RNA, Protein Synthesis 1/22
Notes Protein Synthesis pp for web
Structure and function of RNA
Why is RNA needed ? Proteins are made by ribosomes outside the nucleus (on the rough endoplasmic reticulum). DNA cannot leave the nucleus ( it’s too big). RNA is needed so that it can carry the genetic code (DNA) needed for making proteins to the ribosomes.
What is RNA? RNA = Ribonucleic Acid. The sugar in RNA is ribose. In RNA the base thymine is replaced with Thymine. There are 3 kinds of RNA. rRNA = ribosomal RNA which makes up ribosomes. mRNA = messenger RNA which carries the genetic code out of the nucleus to the ribosomes. tRNA = transfer RNA which transfers amino acids to the ribosome in order to make proteins. mRNA carries the code for an amino acid in a series of 3 nucleotides (like DNA triplet) A group of 3 mRNA nucleotides is called a codon. A group of 3 tRNA nucleotides is called an anti-codon (opposite of codon).
Remember your complimentary base pairing rules: If mRNA is UAG then tRNA is AUC.
The genetic code is universal – codons code for the same amino acids in all known life forms.
Protein Synthesis is a two part process: Transcription in the nucleus and Translation in the cytoplasm. Transcription = mRNA copies the code from DNA. First DNA unzips; RNA nucleotides bond to the exposed bases on the DNA strand; Transcription continues until a stop “codon” is reached. Translation = mRNA is used to make protein. First mRNA leaves the DNA in the nucleus and travels to a ribosome. Next the ribosome begins “translating” the mRNA into protein when it reaches a “start” codon. The ribosome “translates” the mRNA into a sequence of amino acids that make up a specific protein. Translation continues until a “stop” codon is reached. tRNA carries an amino acid on one end. The other end contains the anti-codon (three nitrogen bases) that will match up with the mRNA codon. tRNA molecules match their anti-codon to the mRNA codon. a protein is formed as tRNA’s release their amino acids which are bonded together to make a protein by rRNA (peptide bond).
All of the proteins in your body are made up of combinations of only 20 different amino acids linked together in different ways.
*********************************************************
January 19 - 23
M Holiday
T Protein Synthesis for Candy
Project due tomorrow
W Project due
DNA Extraction
Review Sheet for Test(1/27) review due 1/26
Don't forget Open Note Quiz DNA, RNA, Prot. Syn. is
tomorrow
BRING CHROMO 6 TO CLASS TOMORROW
Th Open note quiz over DNA, RNA, Protein Synthesis
Class time to read Chromosome 6 (1st quiz is tomorrow)
Review sheet for test due 1/26
F Quiz - Chromosome 6
Protein Synthesis crossword due 1/26
(Don't forget the review is due 1/26 and the
TEST is 1/27)
Review Sheet : DNA / RNA / Protein Synthesis
1.What part of the cell is DNA always found in ?
Does it ever leave ?
2.What does DNA stand for ?
3.What are the three components of a nucleotide ?
4.What does DNA look like ?
Draw a picture including at least 6 nitrogen bases.
5.The sides of the DNA ladder are made of alternating ________ and ________ and the steps or rungs of the ladder are pairs of ___________.
6.True or False - Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.
7.What does RNA stand for ?
8.Comparing DNA and RNA. Write DNA or RNA in the blank to the left of each description.
_____ has deoxyribose sugar _____ has thymine
_____ has ribose sugar _____ has uracil
_____ single-stranded _____ has adenine
_____ double -stranded _____ has guanine
_____ has a phosphate component_____ has cytosine
_____ found in the nucleus _____ double helix structure _____ has three different forms
9.The pairing of _____________ in DNA is the key feature that allows DNA to be copied.
10.In DNA, adenine always pairs with ________ and cytosine always pairs with ________.
11.In RNA, adenine always pairs with ________ and cytosine always pairs with ________.
12.Define replication :
13.Replication always occurs in the _____________ and involves the copying of ___________ just before the cell _______________.
14.Three nucleotides of mRNA in a triplet is called a __.
15.Three nucleotides of tRNA in a triplet is called an ___.
16. The matching of a triplet from mRNA with a triplet from tRNA by base-pairing on a ribosome is how ______ _______ are linked together to form proteins.
17.Define transcription:
18.Transcription occurs when __RNA copies the code for making proteins from ______ in the nucleus. __RNA leaves the nucleus with the copied code and attaches to the ______________ .
19.Define translation :
20.Translation involves __RNA, __RNA, and __RNA in order to make _________
21.From the DNA on the left, write the correct mRNA that would be made.
a. A G G T C C A c. T A C G A A C T
b. G T C A T T A d. A G T C T T G A
22. How many amino acids could be made from he sequence described in 21a ?
23.Choose either mRNA, tRNA, or rRNA for each of the descriptions below:
_____ brings amino acids to the ribosome for addition to a protein chain.
_____ moves out of the nucleus to the ribosome.
_____ the RNA copy of the DNA code for the sequence of amino acids in a particular protein.
_____ makes up part of the ribosome and helps bond amino acids together.
_____ transfers the code for a protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
24.What are the building blocks of proteins ?
25.List three properties of enzymes.
26.Write out the steps of protein synthesis in the correct order.
**********************************************************
January 26 - 30
M Review for Test
T TEST DNA, RNA, Protein Synthesis
Begin reading Chapter 39
W New divider "Meiosis / Reproduction"
Notes
Chapter 39 p. 1027 # 1-10 due 1/29
Th Review Meiosis
p. 1027 # 1-10 due
Chapter 39 assignment#2 due 1/30
F Ch. 39 due
Read and answer in class "Development before Birth"
Review sheet for Test (2/3)Meiosis/Reproduction
Bielke Notes - Reproduction
You will need to read the textbook for further explanation and illustrations.
Female Reproduction System
The area around the opening to the female reproductive and urinary systems is called the vulva. The vagina is the passage between the vulva and the uterus.
The vagina is often referred to as the birth canal. The opening on the lower end of the uterus is called the cervix. The uterus is a pear shaped organ that holds the developing fetus. On each side of the uterus is a structure called a fallopian tube or oviduct which connects each ovary to the uterus. Ovaries contain eggs. Approximately once every 28 days an egg or ovum is released from an ovary. The ovum will travel through the fallopian tube and then into the uterus. This release of a matur egg from an ovary is called ovulation. Monthly, the tissue lining the uterus prepares for the arrival of a fertilized egg by producing a thick, spongy, blood-rich tissue. If the egg is not fertilized, the lining will break down and pass out the uterus in a process called the menstrual cycle.
Male Reproductive System
The urethra is a tube extending the length of the penis through which both urine and sperm flow. The Vas deferens is a tube connecting the epididymis to the testes. The testes are the male organs which produce sperm. The scrotum is a sac which contains the testicles (testes). An erection is the swelling of the penis which occurs by veins filling with blood. The Cowper's gland and the Prostate gland secrete a fluid during ejaculation. The mixture of this fluid plus the sperm is called semen. The release of semen from the penis is ejaculation.
Sexual Reproduction vs. Asexual Reproduction
Union of male and One parent forms zygote
female gamete form zygote
Daughter cells are
identical to parent cell
Somatic Cells vs. Reproductive Cells
body cells sex cells (gametes)
46 chromosomes 23 chromosomes
diploid (2n) haploid (n)
male sex cell = sperm
female sex cell = egg
Bielke Notes - Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle is a hormonal feedback system. This means that a gland in one part of the body releases a chemical into the blood which stimulates a response by another part of the body. The pituitary gland is located in the base of the brain called the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland releases FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (leutenizing hormone) into the bloodstream. FSH stimulates a follicle to develop in the ovary. A follicle is a fluid-filled sac which contains the egg. The follicle produces another hormone called estrogen. Estrogen causes teh development of sex characteristics including body hair, fat deposits in breasts and buttocks. Estrogen also causes the lining of the uterus (called the endometrium) to prepare itself for the possibility of pregnancy. As the estrogen levels build up in the bloodstream it "feedsback" the message to the pituitary gland to release LH. LH causes the follicle to rupture and release the egg. This is called ovulation. The broken follicle now becomes a temporary organ called the Corpus Luteum. The Corpus Luteum produces the hormone Progesterone. Progesterone maintains the uterine lining and the primary and secondary sex characteristics.
If fertilization does NOT take place the corpus luteum begins to break down causing a decrease in the production of progesterone. If no progesterone is being produced, the uterine lining breaks down and passes out of the body. This is called Menstruation.
Review – Meiosis & Reproduction
1. Haploid human cells have ___ chromosomes. The symbol used to represent this is ___. Examples of haploid cells include the female ____ and the male ________. Another name for a reproductive or sex cell is a ____________. Gametes become haploid through a special form of cell division called _________.
2. Meiosis occurs in all multicellular organisms that reproduce __________. Amoebas and other unicellular organisms reproduce by splitting in half. This is an example of _________
reproduction.
3. The diploid chromosome number for human cells is _____. All cells except the sex cells or __________ are diploid or ___n.
Diploid cells or body cells are also called ___________ cells.
All body cells or ____________ cells divide by a process known as ____________. The end result of this division is two ___________ cells each with _____ chromosomes.
4. Sexual reproduction is the union of two (haploid / diploid ) cells to form a fertilized egg known as a ________. The human zygote has ____ chromosomes and is (haploid / diploid ).
5. Meiosis insures that each kid will not look ___________ to his parents. This is due to a process called __________ _____.
During this time ___________ (like) chromosomes pair up and exchange some of their DNA.
6. A major difference between meiosis and Mitosis is that after Telophase I, there is NO DNA ___________. If the DNA replicated again, it would defeat the purpose of reduction division...meaning to reduce the human chromosome number from ____ to ____. So, in meiosis, a single diploid cell ends up with four ____________ cells. This happens because the DNA replicates _________ and the cells divide _________7. In males, meiosis produces ____ sperm (each is equally capable of fertilizing an egg). In females, meiosis produces ____ egg ( capable of creating a life after fertilization) and ____ polar bodies which are non-functional eggs. Another term for meiosis is ________________ which means the creation of gametes.
8. Males can produce sperm from _____________ until _________. Females are born with all the _________ that they will ever have. Females begin releasing eggs at a rate of _____ each month from the time they reach ___________ until _____________ (age 40 – 50 years).
9. The ___________ cycle is an example of a hormonal feedback system. This means that one part of the body stimulates a reaction in a ____________ part of the body. In the female, Follicle ______________ Hormone or ______ is released by the ____________ gland and carried to the ovaries by the ___________. FSH causes an egg to develop in a fluid-filled sac called a ___________. The cells of the follicle begin producing the hormone __________. Estrogen causes the development or thickening of the uterine lining (also called the ______________). The buildup of ____________ in the bloodstream eventually causes the ______________ gland to stop making ________ and start making ____________ hormone or LH. When LH reaches the ovaries, it causes the follicle to ____________(break open) and release the _____. This is the start of ____________. It is during this time that a pregnancy can occur if the egg is fertilized by a __________. The broken ____________ becomes a temporary organ known as the ___________ ___________. The corpus luteum produces the hormone _____________ to replace the hormone estrogen, which was released by the follicle. Progesterone maintains the thick lining of the ____________. If a pregnancy occurs, the ___________ ____________ will remain a functioning organ for the entire gestation period (length of pregnancy). The job of the corpus luteum during pregnancy is to maintain the lining of the uterus. If fertilization does NOT occur, the corpus luteum will deteriorate (fall apart) causing the level of the hormone ____________ in the bloodstream to drop. Without progesterone, the lining of the uterus will begin to break apart, marking the first day of the menstrual cycle. Once menstruation begins, the pituitary gland once again releases the hormone ______ in order to prepare another egg for the next cycle.
10. The average menstrual cycle is _______ days long.
When does ovulation occur ?
How long does the egg take to travel through the oviduct ?
Where does fertilization take place ?
If an egg is fertilized, what happens to it in the uterus ?
Where is the fertilized egg when it begins its first mitotic division ?
11. A sperm is composed of a _______, ___________ & _____
Sperm contain a lot of ______________ which provide energy for movement. ______________ is the hormone responsible for the growth and development of secondary sex characteristics in a male. The male organ where sperm are produced is called the _________ while the organ that stores the sperm is called the _____________. The combination of sperm and fluids is called _____________. The ____________ is a sac that contains the testes. The tube that connects the epididymis to the testes is called the ___ _______
In females, the pear-shaped organ/cavity that holds the developing fetus is called the ___________. The developing eggs can be found in the ___________. The lining of the uterus is called the ________________ while the lower opening to the uterus is called the ___________. The ____________ _____
(also called the oviduct) connects the uterus to the ovaries.
The ___________ is sometimes referred to as the birth canal.
Why are male sex organs on the outside of the body while the female sex organs are on the inside ?
12. Trace the pathway of an egg from it’s release, until it leaves the body.
ovaries ->_________->_________->__________->_________
Trace the pathway of sperm from their formation until their release.
testes ->___________->____________->____________
Trace the pathway sperm must take to fertilize an egg.
vagina->____________->_____________->______________
13. How many sperm can fertilize one egg ?
Why ?
14. Around day 4 the zygote becomes a _________ which is a solid ball of about ___ cells. As the embryo grows, a fluid-filled cavity forms in the center, transforming it into a hollow structure known as a ____________. After 8 weeks of development, the embryo is known as a _____________. By the end of the 3 months of development, most of the major ___________ and tissues of the fetus are fully formed.
**********************************************************
Feb 2 - 6
M Review for test
Bring Chromo 6 to class 2/6
T Test (Meiosis / Reproduction)
W Review for 6 weeks test
Mitosis Review
Ch. 11 Vocab due 2/5
Th Late Start
Ch. 11 vocab due
Review Meiosis w/Animation
Review sheet for 6 weeks test
6 wks Test 2/10
F Listen to Chromo 6 on tape
Review sheet for 6 weeks test due 2/9
6 weeks test 2/10
***********************************************************
Feb 9 - 13
M Review for 6 weeks test
Wednesday is an "in class" Chromo 6 reading day
DON'T FORGET TO BRING YOUR BOOKS
T 6 weeks test (Mitosis/Meiosis/DNA/RNA/Protein Synthesis)
W Read Chromosome 6 in class
Th Chromosome 6 Quiz #2
DNA extension
F Student holiday
*********************************************************
Feb 16 - 20
M Student holiday
T New divider - Genetics
Mendel
Intro Genetics w/notes (see below)
W Continue notes - Genetics
Th DNA video
F DNA video
End 4th 6 weeks
Notes - Genetics
DNA - hereditary information found in nucleus
directs activity in cell
Chromosome - DNA and chromatin tightly coiled
together
Gene - a portion of DNA that codes for a specific trait
Ex. seed color = pair of alleles -1 from Mom & 1 from Dad
Allele - alternate form of a gene that controls the
expression of the gene ( often one can be
dominant and the other recessive )
Genetic traits :
1. Dominant - ( use capital letters )
An allele that prevents the expression of a
recessive allele
2. Recessive - ( use lower case letters )
An allele that is hidden by a dominant allele
Example - T = Tall ( dominant )
t = short ( recessive )
soooo....... Tt = Tall
TT = Tall
tt = short ( recessive alleles must be in a pair to show)
Try it....
If Y = Yellow and y = green then
YY = _________
Yy = _________
yy = _________
Homozygous - two identical alleles for the same trait
(same) ex. YY or yy
Heterozygous - two different alleles for a trait
(different) ex. Yy
Genotype - genetic combination of alleles
ex. Yy, YY, Bb, bb
Phenotype - the appearance or way an organisms
genes are expressed
ex. Yellow, Yellow, Brown Blue
Test cross - a way to determine purelines
TT = tall = homozygous pureline
Tt = tall = heterozygous ( hybrid )
tt = short = homozygous pureline
Incomplete dominance – heterozygous alleles expressed by blending
Codominance – heterozygous alleles both expressed equally
Polygenic inheritance – traits determined by more than one allele (ex. eye color)
Sex linkage – genes located on the x chromosome (ex. baldness)
Multiple alleles – more than two possible alleles (ex. blood type – A, B, O)
AB = Universal recipient; O = Universal donor
Rh factor – a marker on the surface of red blood cells
+ is dominant over –
Rh+ = the marker is present; Rh- = the marker is NOT present
If mom is Rh- and fetus is Rh+, mom must be given a drug to prevent
antibodies from forming against Rh+ fetus
Mutations
A random change in the sequence of nucleotid3es in DNA is called a mutation.
Two groups of mutations: Gene and Chromosome
Gene mutations:
Point mutation – one nucleotide in a gene is changed
Frameshift mutations: Deletion = loss of a nucleotide
Insertion = addition of a nucleotide
Frameshift are more damaging than point because many amino acids are changed
Chromosomal:
Inversion – when a chromosome is broken and reinserted backwards
Translocation – when part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to
another chromosome
Deletion – a piece of chromosome is broken off and lost
Duplication – a segment of chromosome is repeated
Non-disjunction – chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (one gamete
will receive an extra chromosome = Trisomy; another will be missing a
chromosome = Monosomy)
Karyotype = a picture of the chromosomes that are paired and numbered in order
Mutations in the somatic cells (body cells) are NOT inherited. These mutations cause cancer.
Mutations in the gametes will be passed to the offspring.
Sex – Linked notes (web)
Types of Chromosomes
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair is related to the sex of an individual, these chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.
Sex Chromosomes
In humans, the sex of an individual depends on the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. A normal human female is XX. A normal male is Xy
Who determines the sex of the child ? The male.
Genes that are located on the X chromosome are called sex-linked genes. Traits determined by sex-linked genes are called sex-linked traits.
Ex. colorblindness, hemophilia, baldness
Sex linked traits are recessive. This means both x chromosomes in a female must have the gene in order for the trait to be expressed.
If only one x chromosome is present ( in males) and has the sex linked gene, then the trait will be expressed.
A carrier is a person that has the trait on only one x chromosome and does not express the trait. Carriers of sex linked traits are always women.
Hemophilia is characterized by uncontrolled bleeding. It is a sexlinked disorder caused by errors in DNA that codes for the proteins involved in clotting.
Another type of sex linked trait is male pattern baldness.
Try the following crosses and give the genotype and phenotype for each:
Colorblind male X normal female
Normal male X carrier female
Normal male X colorblind female
Bald male X normal female
**********************************************************
5th 6 weeks
Feb 23 - 27
M Finish video ???
Bikini Bottoms Punnett Square Practice due 2/24
T Genetics notes
W Genetics notes
Study guide pp 271-274 due 2/26
Th Late Start
study guide due
Review Sheet for Test due 3/2
Test - Genetics 3/3
F Quiz #3 Chromosome 6 thru Chapter 10
Study guide pp. 275-276 due
Sex – Linked notes (web)
Types of Chromosomes
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair is related to the sex of an individual, these chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.
Sex Chromosomes
In humans, the sex of an individual depends on the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. A normal human female is XX. A normal male is Xy
Who determines the sex of the child ? The male.
Genes that are located on the X chromosome are called sex-linked genes. Traits determined by sex-linked genes are called sex-linked traits.
Ex. colorblindness, hemophilia, baldness
Sex linked traits are recessive. This means both x chromosomes in a female must have the gene in order for the trait to be expressed.
If only one x chromosome is present ( in males) and has the sex linked gene, then the trait will be expressed.
A carrier is a person that has the trait on only one x chromosome and does not express the trait. Carriers of sex linked traits are always women.
Hemophilia is characterized by uncontrolled bleeding. It is a sexlinked disorder caused by errors in DNA that codes for the proteins involved in clotting.
Another type of sex linked trait is male pattern baldness.
Try the following crosses and give the genotype and phenotype for each:
Colorblind male X normal female
Normal male X carrier female
Normal male X colorblind female
Bald male X normal female
Notes: Chromosomal & Gene Mutations pp for web
Proteins and Mutations:
Some proteins carry out functions within the cells of an organism. Other proteins are exported out of the cell for other purposes. Still other proteins are used as activators or repressors, turning genes on or off. Therefore, a change in a cell’s proteins could have dramatic effects on the cell’s structure or function. Changes in the DNA can change the proteins made by the cell. A random change in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is called a mutation. Some mutations have little or no effect on the organism, others are harmful and very few are beneficial. There are two types of mutations: Chromosomal and Gene. Chromosomal mutations are changes in the structure of a chromosome. Gene mutations are errors that occur within individual genes in a chromosome. Gene mutations can involve a single nucleotide or they can affect sections of DNA that include many nucleotides. The deletion or addition of nucleotides that disrupts codons is called a frameshift mutation. Because mRNA is read in codons (three-base sections) during translation, an addition or deletion of nucleotides can alter the sequence of bases, or reading frame, of the genetic message. Because each mRNA codon corresponds to an amino acid, altering the codons may alter the amino acid sequence. The end result may be an entirely different protein product. Frameshift mutations can have an enormous impact on an organism’s structure and function. A change in only one nucleotide is a point mutation. Because a point mutation affects a single codon, it tends to be far less disruptive than a frameshift mutation. Some amino acids are coded for by more than one codon, and substitution may simply change one codon to another codon for the same amino acid. About 30% of all substitution mutations produce no changes in proteins. In the remaining 70% of point mutations, changed nucleotides cause a different amino acid to be incorporated into a protein. The resulting protein may function normally or may be defective. A third and very common point mutation occurs when a codon in the middle of a gene is changed to a stop codon. For example UGC = Cysteine but UGA = Stop. When genes with this mutation go through protein synthesis, translation is halted before the amino acid chain is completed.
Notes - Genetics
DNA - hereditary information found in nucleus
directs activity in cell
Chromosome - DNA and chromatin tightly coiled
together
Gene - a portion of DNA that codes for a specific trait
Ex. seed color = pair of alleles -1 from Mom & 1 from Dad
Allele - alternate form of a gene that controls the
expression of the gene ( often one can be
dominant and the other recessive )
Genetic traits :
1. Dominant - ( use capital letters )
An allele that prevents the expression of a
recessive allele
2. Recessive - ( use lower case letters )
An allele that is hidden by a dominant allele
Example - T = Tall ( dominant )
t = short ( recessive )
soooo....... Tt = Tall
TT = Tall
tt = short ( recessive alleles must be in a pair to show)
Try it....
If Y = Yellow and y = green then
YY = _________
Yy = _________
yy = _________
Homozygous - two identical alleles for the same trait
(same) ex. YY or yy
Heterozygous - two different alleles for a trait
(different) ex. Yy
Genotype - genetic combination of alleles
ex. Yy, YY, Bb, bb
Phenotype - the appearance or way an organisms
genes are expressed
ex. Yellow, Yellow, Brown Blue
Test cross - a way to determine purelines
TT = tall = homozygous pureline
Tt = tall = heterozygous ( hybrid )
tt = short = homozygous pureline
Incomplete dominance – heterozygous alleles expressed by blending
Codominance – heterozygous alleles both expressed equally
Polygenic inheritance – traits determined by more than one allele (ex. eye color)
Sex linkage – genes located on the x chromosome (ex. baldness)
Multiple alleles – more than two possible alleles (ex. blood type – A, B, O)
AB = Universal recipient; O = Universal donor
Rh factor – a marker on the surface of red blood cells
+ is dominant over –
Rh+ = the marker is present; Rh- = the marker is NOT present
If mom is Rh- and fetus is Rh+, mom must be given a drug to prevent
antibodies from forming against Rh+ fetus
Mutations
A random change in the sequence of nucleotid3es in DNA is called a mutation.
Two groups of mutations: Gene and Chromosome
Gene mutations:
Point mutation – one nucleotide in a gene is changed
Frameshift mutations: Deletion = loss of a nucleotide
Insertion = addition of a nucleotide
Frameshift are more damaging than point because many amino acids are changed
Chromosomal:
Inversion – when a chromosome is broken and reinserted backwards
Translocation – when part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to
another chromosome
Deletion – a piece of chromosome is broken off and lost
Duplication – a segment of chromosome is repeated
Non-disjunction – chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (one gamete
will receive an extra chromosome = Trisomy; another will be missing a
chromosome = Monosomy)
Karyotype = a picture of the chromosomes that are paired and numbered in order
Mutations in the somatic cells (body cells) are NOT inherited. These mutations cause cancer.
Mutations in the gametes will be passed to the offspring.
***********************************************************
Mar 2 - 6
M Review
T Test 1 - Genetics
W TAKS
Pedigree/dihybrid notes
Th "The Blue People of Troublesome Creek"
F Chromo 6 Quiz #4 thru Chapter 12
Study guide - Karyotypes
*********************************************************
Mar 9 - 13
M Baby Lab - create Karyotype
T Baby Lab - Determine genetic traits
W Baby lab - Illustrations/ Announcment
Lab due 3/25
Th Sex-linked packet
F Genetics Video
**********************************************************
Spring Break
**********************************************************
March 23-27
M Genetics practice problems review
T Review genetics problems
Chromosomal non-disjunction
W Baby Lab due
Review for Genetics Test (3/31)
T Baby lab review
More review for test
F Genetic disorders
More review for test
Chromo 6 quiz 5 thru ch 14 moved to 4/3
**********************************************************
March 30 - April 3
M Final review for test (tomorrow 3/31)
T Test - Genetics
W Begin Biotechnology
Th Continue Biotechnology
F Chromosome 6 Quiz #5 thru Chapter 14
Review for 6 weeks test (4/7)
**********************************************************
april 6 - 10
M Review for 6 weeks test
T 6 weeks test
W Begin Population genetics
Th Gallapagos Islands
F Student Holiday
***********************************************************
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